Symptoms and Long-Term Effects of Depression - 950 Words

Depression is a psychiatric disorder characterized by an inability to concentrate, insomnia, loss of appetite, feelings of extreme sadness, guilt, helplessness and hopelessness, and thoughts of death. People that are depressed have sadness greater and more prolonged than that warranted by any objective reason. It is a serious illness that affects thoughts, feelings, and the ability to function in everyday life. Thirteen to fourteen million Americans suffer from depression in any given year and over sixteen percent have depression at some point in time. (Depression health) Women tend to be more susceptible to the disorder than men. (Depression) Symptoms of depression are persistent sad mood, loss of interest or pleasure in activities once†¦show more content†¦Sometimes depressed people are unrealistically pessimistic about their health. Depressed patients in a hospital, although they did improve considerably during two years, still thought less of their mental and physical health than regular medical patients. Depressed people always remember how they felt and some people will think they are still depressed because they are different than they used to be. So they just want to go back to the way they were before. Depression does have effects on the mind. But it just depends on how long you let the things affect you. Works Cited Arias, Donya C. â€Å"Depression Worsens Health More than Arthritis, Asthma, or Diabetes. (Health Findings: The Latest Public Health Studies and Research).† The Nation’s Health. Nov. 2007. pg. 30. Dean, Mary R. Personal Interview. Thursday, 31 Jan. 2008. â€Å"Depression and Health: Long-Term Effects.† Harvard Mental Health Letter. August 1995. pg. 7. â€Å"Depression Is A Labor Issue.† Briarpatch. Dec. 2007 â€Å"Depression Is Significant Cause of Homicides In China.† Xinhua News Agency. Nov. 2007 â€Å"Depression (Health).† World Almanac and Book of Facts. World Almanac Education Group. 2005. pg. 96. â€Å"Effects of Postpartum Depression.† Talk of the Nation. 26, June 2001 Jancin, Bruce. â€Å"Postpartum Depression Hurts Kids. (Boys More Adversely Affected Than Girls.† Clinical Psychiatry. July 2003. Lewis, Kristyn Kusek. â€Å"Tired? Achy? Thirsty? The Symptoms That Trip up Even Top Docs.†Show MoreRelatedDepression Essay : Depression : The Causes Of Depression893 Words   |  4 PagesDepression Depression affects many people in today’s society for a number of reasons. Depression is a serious disorder, numerous people are affected by it. However, there are places to go that give help that people with depression need. To begin, depression is a disorder that affects a great deal of people. According to Mayo Clinic, â€Å"Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest† (â€Å"Overview,† n.d.). 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Individualized Developmental Care Practices Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

string(44) " continuances of premature babies in NICUs\." Abstraction Aim and nonsubjective. This research aimed to measure the consequence of individualised developmental attention patterns on the growing and hospitalization continuance of prematures. Background: It is known that individualised developmental attention patterns enable premature babies to hold rapid weight addition, intensive attention complications to diminish, to hold earlier discharge from the infirmary, and the related cost to cut down. We will write a custom essay sample on Individualized Developmental Care Practices Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Design. The survey used an experimental design. Methods. The survey was carried out with prematures who received intervention and attention in the NICU ( N=97 ) . Babies were randomized into three groups ; mother ‘s aroma, flexure and control. Babies were monitored every attention hours of each twenty-four hours until the discharge and the measurings were recorded. The informations obtained were analyzed by t-test, per centum distributions, agencies, chi-square trial, analysis of discrepancy, and Bonferroni trial. Consequences. It was determined in the survey that there was a important difference between experimental and control groups in footings of agencies of their discharge weight and tallness and this difference was associated with the mother-scent group ( P lt ; 0.05 ) . While the within-group difference between hospitalization and discharge weight means was important merely in the mother-scent group ( P lt ; 0.05 ) , the within-group difference between hospitalization and discharge tallness agencies was important in all three groups ( P lt ; 0.05 ) . Even though the within-group difference between agencies of hospitalization continuance of premature babies was undistinguished ( p gt ; 0.05 ) , means in the experimental groups were determined to be lower than the agencies in the control group. Decision. Since the methods of female parent ‘s odor and flexure place intercessions support premature babies ‘ growing and shorten their hospitalization continuance, it is of import to utilize routinely them at NICU. Relevance to Clinical Practice: NICU nurses might put the premature infants down in the flexure place and do them feel their female parent ‘s aroma in order to speed up their growing and shorten their hospitalization continuance. Cardinal Wordss: Individualized Developmental Care, Premature Baby, NICU, Nursing Introduction Prematureness is the most of import ground for neonatal mortality and morbidity in the development states ( Yurdakok 2005, Beck et Al. 2010, Simmons et Al. 2010 ) . The life of premature babies who are born early is tried to be survived in the Newborn Intensive Care Units ( NICU ) . A important lessening has been achieved in infant mortalities with the aid of the advanced technological tools and standardized attention techniques in NICUs. Furthermore, it is observed that while lasting neurodevelopmental jobs, larning and behavioural upsets, and motor accomplishments lessening, other developmental jobs addition ( YA ±ldA ±rA ±m 2001, Vandenberg 2007, CiAYdem 2011, Brown A ; Heermann 1997 ) . Bing extremely different from the intrauterine environment, the NICU obstructs accommodation of the baby to the new life, since it can non exactly run into the developmental degree and demands of a premature baby. In these units, the inauspicious effects could be minimized by doing some alt erations on the environment ( TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008 ) . In add-on to environment, the nursing attention besides has a high efficiency for premature babies to be affected positively/negatively. The consequences of NIDCAP ( Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program ) patterns, which have been executed in NICUs in recent old ages, have been positive both in footings of both the baby and clinic facet ( YA ±ldA ±rA ±m 2001, TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008 ) . Sing the individualism and behavioural organisation of the neonate ; the attack of IDC ( Individualized Development Care ) is consisted of commanding and set uping the environmental factors, nearing the attention needs as baby-centered and using them in such a manner to back up the development of the baby in order to enable version of the neonate to the excess uterine life ( Vandenberg 2007, Brown A ; Heermann 1997, Als 1982, Symigton A ; Pinelli 2006 ) . When the IDC is practiced, it could enable the stabilisation of physiological and behavioural maps of the premature, and contribute to his/her healthy growing and development ( CiAYdem 2011 ) . Some advantages of the IDC are as follows ; rapid weight addition, lessening in intensive attention complications, earlier discharge from the infirmary and a important lessening in the cost ( TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008 ) . The nursing attention patterns provided in NICUs have been arranged all around the universe since 1980s in line with NIDCAP plans ( Brown A ; Heermann 1997, Symigton A ; Pinelli 2006, Gibbins et Al. 2008, Coughlin et Al. 2009, Als et Al. 1994, Holsti et Al. 2004, Wielenga et Al. 2009, Maguire et Al. 2009 ) . There have been a limited figure of surveies, which assess the consequence of IDC in footings of different topics, in Turkey. TarA ± and CiAYdem ( 2008 ) determined that the IDC, which is executed in passage to bottle-feeding in preterm babies, increases the organic structure weight in babies and enables earlier discharge of them. In their survey which evaluated the efficiency of the odor of chest milk in passage from forced feeding to entire unwritten eating in premature babies, YA ±ldA ±z et Al. ( 2011 ) determined that the stimulation by the odor of chest milk accelerated the passage to entire unwritten eating and shortens the hospitalization continuance. Akcan et Al. ( 2009 ) investigated the consequence of kangaroo attention on diminishing the hurting during the invasive intercessions, and found that babies, to whom kangaroo attention was applied, felt less pain compared to those in the control group. The survey conducted by AydA ±n ( 2006 ) determined that while the classical music that is played for premature babies had no consequence on the growing parametric quantities and hospitalization continuance of babies, it was effectual on diminishing emphasis degrees. In Turkey there has been no survey that investigates the consequence of supplying female parent ‘s aroma and the place that supports the flexure, sing the IDC patterns. The IDC patterns that will be performed in line with the consequences obtained from these intercessions are thought to be perchance supportive for the attention of premature babies. The intent of this survey was to measure the consequence of IDC patterns on the growing and hospitalization continuances of premature babies in NICUs. You read "Individualized Developmental Care Practices Health And Social Care Essay" in category "Essay examples" Hypothesiss of the Study Hypothesis 1. The growing of babies in groups to which IDC is applied ( flexure and female parent ‘s aroma ) is faster compared to those in the control group. Hypothesis 2. The hospitalization continuance of babies in groups to which IDC is applied is shorter compared to those in the control group. Hypothesis 3. The growing and hospitalization continuance of babies in groups to which IDC is applied are different from each other. Methods Study Design The survey used an experimental design. Sample The survey was conducted in Ministry of Health, Provincial Directorate of Health of Kars, Kars State Hospital, Newborn Intensive Care Unit between September 2010 and May 2012. Harmonizing to the standards of the T.R. Ministry of Health, the unit where the survey was conducted is a second-level NICU. The unit has 16 brooders and 10 unfastened beds, 8 nurses and 7 baby doctor, and 3-4 babes per nurse. Babies, who require a more advanced attention, are transferred to closest infirmaries with advanced third-level newborn intensive attention unit. Harmonizing to the records, 1163 neonates were admitted to the unit in the twelvemonth of 2010. 132 of these neonates were consisted of premature babies. The state of Kars is geographically located in a rural country in the East of Turkey. It has a distance of about 200 kilometers from a general infirmary with a third-level NICU. The population of the survey was consisted of premature babies, who received intervention and attention in the NICU between May 2011 and April 2012, and met the choice standards. 1383 neonates were brought to the unit between the specified day of the months. 162 of these babes were premature. As a consequence of the power analysis performed to put the sample size, the sample size was determined to be a sum of 83 premature babies in order for the power of the trial to be 0.90 at the significance degree of 0.05 and the medium-effect degree. The survey was conducted with 97 premature babies in three groups, which included 30, 32, and 35 babies, utilizing the method of random assignment. It is stated that there is a demand to analyze with at least 30 participants in order to make the sample size in experimental surveies ( A-zdamar 2003 ) . Inclusion standards Having a gestational age below 36 hebdomads and 6 yearss Having a weight of 1000 gms and above Having a stable wellness status within 24 hours after the birth Bing breastfed Having no inborn anomalousnesss Having an indirect hematoidin degree below 15 mg/dl Having a female parent who is unfastened to communicating and cooperation Data Collection The informations were obtained between May 2011 and April 2012. Descriptive information signifier of the premature baby was filled out with the aid of information obtained from the files of the babies, nurse observation signifiers and their female parents. Measurements were performed by the research workers. Descriptive Information Form of the Premature Infant: This signifier, which was prepared by the research workers by reexamining the relevant literature ( TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008, Maguire et al.2009, YA ±ldA ±z et Al. 2011, Westrup et Al. 2000 ) , has 8 descriptive and open-ended inquiries related to the baby ( gestational age, gender, day of the month of birth, birth weight, tallness, caput perimeter, day of the month and hr of entree to the unit, and day of the month and hr of discharge ) . Premature Follow-Up Form: It is the signifier in which the measurings ( weight and tallness ) of babies are recorded. Material of Baby Bendy Bumper Positioning: It is a flexible place stuff, which is used in continuing the flexure place of the premature baby and for him/her to accommodate a comfy physiological place, has a metal that could be shaped harmonizing to the demand of the baby, and is covered with a froth organic structure. The baby could be placed in Bendy Bumper in a prone, supine or side-lying place. The froth organic structure has a washable and reclaimable screen. Three Bendy Bumper stuffs and, disposable external screens that are produced specifically for the stuff non to have on out or go an infection factor were used in the survey. Ookie Mom-Scent Doll: The word Ookie means â€Å" small, bantam † in Dutch linguistic communication. Ookies have been used for neonates since 1997. It is a doll with satin borders, which is made of 100 % cotton flannel, has sizes of 35cmx40cm and assorted colorss. It is easy to rinse, dry and sterilize the doll owing to its quality. Ookie does non hold any individuality like face, race, and gender. It is a convenient tool to supply the female parent ‘s aroma, which is the best aromatherapy, for babes, who get separated from their female parent at place or are required to be cared in some other environment, and the hospitalized babies. In order to convey the female parent ‘s aroma, female parent and the Ookie doll should kip together for one dark after the birth and so it should be placed near the babe. Two Ookie dolls were used for each premature baby in the survey. Intervention The premature babies, in conformance with the choice standards of the survey, were waited for acquiring stabilised. Interviews were conducted with the households of babies, who were stabilised during the first 24 hours, and they were informed about the survey. Written permissions of these households, who accepted to take part in the survey, were obtained and their babes were included in the survey. Families were informed that the informations would be kept confidential and be used merely for this survey. Before the survey NICU nurses and female parents were informed about the survey and intercessions to be conducted. Three hours ( 0900-1200-1500 ) among the intervention and attention hours given by nurses in the NICU within the twenty-four hours were selected and measurings were performed harmonizing to this order ; babies were non touched in any other clip. The Premature Follow-Up Form was completed by the research workers and all processs were continued until the discharge of babies. While the first group that was included within the range of the survey constituted the control group, the 2nd group was the flexure group and the 3rd group was the mother-scent group. Group agreement was determined by pulling tonss. Each baby that was admitted to the unit was included in groups harmonizing to this agreement. When the Ookie doll and place stuffs were being used, the assignment continued with the following group. The intercessions, which were applied to premature babies that constituted the control group and experimental groups of the survey, are as follows. Premature Babies in the Control Group: Premature babies in this group received the everyday attention of the clinic. Routine attention includes the intervention, eating and hygiene patterns of babies and no nursing intercession was applied except for them. They were at the same time followed with those in the experimental groups until the discharge. Premature Babies in the Flexion Group: Flexion places of premature babies in this group were supported throughout the twenty-four hours. In the clinic where the pattern was performed, the babies were laid down in the prone, supine and by and large side-lying places harmonizing to the status of each baby. Their flexures were preserved with a nesting supportA without altering their ain prevarication place. Bendy bumper positioning stuff, which is placed under the pelvic girdle and pess as â€Å" U † form on the side of shoulders, was used for this place. The place of the baby was rearranged during each eating and care hr, and this process was sustained until the discharge of the baby. The positioning stuff was covered with a unfertile screen. The screen was changed as it got soiled and was about to be used for another baby. Premature Babies in the Mother-Scent Group: An Ookie doll was given to the female parent of each premature in this group and her were asked to maintain the doll on her thorax for one dark ( about eight hours ) , in such a manner to do it touched with their bare tegument. By this manner, Ookie absorbed the female parent ‘s aroma owing to its smell-absorbing nature and so was placed in the brooder near the baby the following twenty-four hours. Two Ookie dolls were used for each baby in this process ; one for the female parent and the other for the baby in the brooder Bing kept in brooders for 24 hours, Ookie dolls were changed at 0900, the first attention hr, every twenty-four hours and this process was continued until the discharge of premature babies. Dolls were labelled harmonizing to their signifier Numberss and changed with the female parent in order to forestall confusion. Ookie dolls, which were used for each dismissed premature baby, were sterilised in the sterilization unit of the infirmary ( at 121 A °C in sterilizer for 1 hr ) within disposable sterilization bags. In the specified NICUs, the premature babies are followed on unfastened beds for certain periods of clip after being taken out of the brooder and they are discharged when they no more need the support of the infirmary in term of prolonging their physiological demands. The premature babies who were involved in the survey were followed in the same manner until their discharge from the infirmary ; before being discharged, their weight, and height steps every bit good as discharge day of the months were recorded in order to find their growing provinces. Ethical Considerations Equally good as a legal permission from the relevant establishment, ethical consent ( dated 31.12.2010 and numbered 2010.6.1/7 ) was received from the Ethics Committee of Ataturk University, Institute of Health Sciences in order to carry on the survey. The households of premature babies, who complied with the standards of the survey group, were informed about the intent of the survey, their inquiries were answered and written consents were received. The parents were explained that the information they gave would be kept confidential, would non be used in anywhere else and they had the right to retreat from the survey at any clip. None withdrew from the survey. Statistical Analysis The informations were assessed by utilizing appropriate statistical analyses in the package plan of SPSS ( Statistical Package for Social Sciences ) 18.0. Percentage distributions, mean, standard divergence, and chi-square trial were used to statistically analyse the obtained informations ; one-way analysis of discrepancy for between-groups comparings, t trial for within-group comparings, and Bonferroni trial, which is an advanced station hoc analysis, for mated comparings were used. Consequences The survey determined that premature babies in control group and experimental groups were similar in footings of agencies of gestational age, birth weight, birth length, birth caput perimeter, weight in hospitalization, tallness in hospitalization and caput perimeter in hospitalization every bit good as gender ( p gt ; 0.05, Table 1 ) . It was specified that the difference between experimental groups and control group in footings of agencies of discharge weight was important, and this difference was associated with the mother-scent group. While a important difference was observed between the hospitalization and discharge weight means in the mother-scent group ( P lt ; 0.05 ) , the difference between the flexure group and control group was undistinguished ( p gt ; 0.05, Table 2 ) . The difference between experimental groups and control group in footings of agencies of discharge tallness was important ( p lt ; 0.05 ) , and this difference was caused by the mother-scent group. Besides the difference between the hospitalization and discharge tallness agencies was important within each of all three groups ( P lt ; 0.05, Table 2 ) . The difference between experimental groups and control group in footings of agencies of hospitalization continuance was undistinguished ; nevertheless, the hospitalization continuance of experimental groups was shorter ( P gt ; 0.05, Table 3 ) . Discussion NICU scene is an environment that lacks parent contact and stimulation for a premature baby when he/she is non developmentally ready, and a topographic point where the baby is exposed to stressors such as disease, noise, visible radiation, repeated painful processs and medicines, and inordinate stimulations ( Erdeve et al. 2008 ) . It is known that conditions in this environment, which provides a long-run intervention and attention and animal injury adversely affect development of the nervous system of the babe ( Erdeve et al. 2008, KarataAY 2011 ) . The aim of IDC is to set up the stimulations ( sound, visible radiation, odor, contact of the health professional, conversation, societal interaction ) in the environment where attention is given during this critical and long procedure as similar to the intrauterine environment and implement the attention in such a manner to back up the development of the newborn ( Symigton A ; Pinelli 2006, KarataAY 2011, Legendre et Al. 2011 ) . The survey assessed the consequence of female parent ‘s aroma and flexure place on the growing and hospitalization continuance of premature babies. Environmental and societal stimulations in the NICU environment cause the babe to devour greater energy. However, energy is required for the growth-development of these babes and their attempts of version to the external universe. The attack of developmental attention purposes to utilize the energy at minimal degree and shop it to be used for the growth-development every bit much as possible ( YA ±ldA ±rA ±m 2001, TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008, KarataAY 2011, Als 1998 ) . It was reported that babies who received IDC gained greater weight compared to other babies ( Brown A ; Heermann 1997, TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008, Symigton A ; Pinelli 2006, YA ±ldA ±z et Al. 2011, Als 1998, Als et al.1996, Ballweg 2001, Chen et al. 2000 ) . It was determined in the survey that there was a important difference between the groups in footings of discharge weight agencies of babes and this difference was associated with the mother-scent group. Upon within-group comparing of hospitalization and discharge weight agencies of experimental and control groups, there was a important difference in the mother-scent group ( P lt ; 0.05 ) , and an undistinguished difference between the flexure and control groups ( P gt ; 0.05 ) . This consequence was partly supported by the hypothesis, â€Å" The growing of babies in groups to which IDC is applied ( flexure and female parent ‘s aroma ) is faster compared to those in the control group † . In their survey which assessed the efficiency of the odor of chest milk during the forced feeding eating in prematures, YA ±ldA ±z et Al. ( 2011 ) reported a important addition on discharge weights of babes, to whom the odor stimulation was applied. In their survey which compared the traditional and developmental attention methods practiced during the passage to bottle-feeding in premature babies, TarA ± and CiAYdem ( 2008 ) determined that the weight addition was greater in babies, to whom IDC was practiced. In their survey, B rown and Heermann ( 1997 ) applied IDC to 25 premature babies under 1500 gms, and reported that the discharge weights, and difference between hospitalization-discharge weight of babies were important, which is line with the findings of this survey. In the surveies conducted by Als et Al. ( 1994 ) and Chen et Al. ( 2000 ) , they examined the IDC pattern on premature babes in the NICU and as a consequence of their surveies ; they determined an addition in the day-to-day organic structure weight. Consequences of the survey support the consequences of these surveies. It was determined that the difference between the groups in footings of agencies of discharge tallness of premature babies was statistically important ( p lt ; 0.05 ) and this difference was related with the mother-scent group. As a consequence of the within-group comparings, the difference between their agencies of hospitalization and discharge tallness was statistically important within each of all three groups ( P lt ; 0.05 ) . Findingss obtained in footings of the growing parametric quantities are complicated in surveies on the efficiency of IDC in NICUs in literature. In a randomized-controlled survey conducted by Als et Al. ( 2003 ) , it was reported that the premature babes in the experimental group had a faster day-to-day weight addition and growing. In the randomized-controlled survey of Westrub et Al. ( 2000 ) , IDC was non effectual on growing. In their survey which compared the criterion attention and IDC methods on 164 premature babes who were younger than the gestatio nal hebdomad 32, Magiure et Al. ( 2009 ) reported that there was non a important difference between experimental and control groups, in footings of weight, tallness and caput perimeter. The consequences of the survey are in parallel with the consequences of the survey conducted by Als et Al. ( 2003 ) . Premature babes could be hospitalized for a long clip, due to grounds such as the badness of their diseases, malformations or earlier gestational age. Extended hospitalization might do nosocomial infections, extension of the recovery period, negative psychosocial effects associated with the long-run separation from the household and high medical costs ( YA ±ldA ±z 2002, Legendre et Al. 2011 ) Some surveies reported that individualized developmental attention patterns decrease the hospitalization continuance ( Brown A ; Heermann 1997, TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008, Symigton A ; Pinelli 2006, Als et al 1994, YA ±ldA ±z et Al. 2011, Westrup et Al. 2000, Chen et al. 2000, Als et Al. 2003 ) . The survey revealed that the mother-scent group had the shortest hospitalization continuance, which was followed by the flexure group, and the control group had the longest hospitalization continuance ; the difference between the groups was undistinguished ( p gt ; 0.05 ) . Compared to the co ntrol group, the hospitalization continuance was 3 yearss shorter in the mother-scent group and 2 yearss shorter in the flexure group. This consequence was supported by the hypotheses, â€Å" The hospitalization continuance of babies in groups to which IDC is applied is shorter compared to those in the control group † and â€Å" growing and hospitalization continuance of babies in groups to which IDC is applied is different from each other † . In their survey which assessed the efficiency of the odor of chest milk during the forced feeding eating in premature babes, YA ±ldA ±z et Al. ( 2011 ) determined that babes in the experimental group were discharged from the infirmary earlier. In their survey, TarA ± and CiAYdem ( 2008 ) compared the traditional and developmental attention methods applied during the passage to bottle-feeding in premature babes, and determined that babes to whom IDC was executed were discharged from the infirmary earlier. In the survey conducted by Als et Al. ( 1994 ) they examined the consequence of IDC pattern on premature babes in the NICU and specified that premature babes in the experimental group were hospitalized for a shorter period and there was a lessening in the attention cost. In add-on to these surveies ( TarA ± A ; CiAYdem 2008, 1994, Als et al. , YA ±ldA ±z et al 2011 ) , other surveies ( Brown A ; Heermann 1997, Chen et al. 2000, Als et Al. 2003, Wielenga et Al. 2007 ) be sides determined that IDC patterns shortened the hospitalization continuance of premature babes. Study consequences show a similarity with these consequences. Decision Since the intercessions of female parent ‘s aroma and flexure place support the growing and shorten the hospitalization continuance, they could be used routinely in premature babes with a stable status. Parents could be trained for the saving of the flexure place at place, following the discharge. It is required to measure the intercessions of female parent ‘s aroma and flexure place in premature babes with non-stable conditions, non suckling, full-term babes and those with anomalousnesss, and besides analyze the efficiency of different IDC patterns. Relevance to clinical pattern NICU nurses might put the premature infants down in the flexure place and do them feel their female parent ‘s aroma in order to speed up their growing and shorten their hospitalization continuance. How to cite Individualized Developmental Care Practices Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

International Management for Urban Areas- MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theInternational Management for Urban Areas. Answer: Urban areas require real estate market that should be responsive to the changes in supply and demand so s to ensure that there are distortions in the prices of houses within the urban centers. While the real estate markets my show some idiosyncratic behavior and peculiarities in the patterns that they follow, they still obey the basic principles of economics of demand and supply. The real estate demand in Sydney and Melbourne has been strong over a number of years and is affected by the real estate economic principles of demand and supply. The principles that determine prices of the real estate markets in Sydney and Melbourne are the price elasticity of demand, market size, income as well as the short-run aggregate supply and new constructions. Factors of Demand Affecting the Price The demand for real estate in terms of quantity can be defined as the demand for units which in turn affects the price. The lower the amount of units that are available, then the prices will go up accordingly. Demand can at the same time be considered as the effective demand which is backed solidly by the purchasing power of the consumer (Bates, Giaccotto and Santerre, 2015). The effective demand in Sydney and Melbourne are affected by the strong purchasing power of the inhabitants of the two cities which are underpinned by the strong economic fundamentals within them. The two cities have relatively strong economies which give the dwellers a strong purchasing power. Price Elasticity The concept of price elasticity is based on the principle that there is a percentage change in the quantity demanded that is affected by 1% increase in the price. For the real estate dynamic in Sydney and Melbourne, the demand is elastic since the price elasticity is greater than one. An increase in prices of houses (Ishijima and Maeda, 20150 induces a large decrease in the units or available in the market. The price elasticity is affected by the availability of substitutes within the real estate market. Since most of the demand is from the middle-income category, the availability of substitutes affects the price elasticity of the houses available in Sydney and Melbourne. Income and Wealth The recent increase in incomes and wealth and also contribute to the high prices of housing in Sydney and Melbourne. The higher incomes means that more households can afford to buy houses which pushes the demand up and the result is higher prices (Zhang and Seiler, 2013).The income is determined by the rate of unemployment which is relatively low for Sydney at 5% and 5.9 for Melbourne (Bleby and Tan, 2016).The infrastructure investment by the state government in transport in Sydney has resulted in a booming and strong economy in Sydney which has reduced joblessness and increased levels of disposable income with which to invest in buying a house. Market Size The market size also contributes to the high prices as the populations of Sydney and Melbourne are high. The population that is employed is also high which means that a high percentage of this population will need houses either for rental or to purchase. The higher population that is competing for limited housing (Pang and Marton, 2013) will put an upward pressure in the prices to go up. There is increased migration of people from other territories due to the booming economies of Sydney (Irvine, 2016) and Melbourne and this increased population has resulted in a higher demand for houses. Factors Affecting the Supply Short-Run Aggregate Supply The short-run aggregate supply refers to the total stock of units that are available at any given time. In the short-run, the supply of stock in real estate is fixed and this constrains the supply accordingly (Uren, 2016). The supply is affected by the lag in the time taken to construct which is typically between 6-12 months within the Sydney and Melbourne Metropolitan areas. The construction lag affects the changes in rent and prices and contributes to the high prices as the short-run supply does not immediately correct the imbalance of demand and supply in the market. The short-run aggregate is also affected by the wrong housing mix in the two metropolitan areas. The supply of apartments is higher than detached units, which makes a would-be seller unwilling to sell their house, since they may be forced to upgrade to an apartment which is not the ideal for many (Winston-Geideman, Kimberly and Evangepoulos, 2013).This contributes to the low stocks of houses available and which in turn contributes to pushing the prices up. Instead of selling, many owners resort to upgrading their units which lends to maintain low levels of stock in the short-run. New Construction New construction is determined by the stock flow identity. The stock flow identity states that the stock available at a given time is equal to the total stock of the previous time period plus the completed units minus the depreciated stock. The depreciation includes the physical depreciation, economic depreciation and functional depreciation. Properties that are becoming obsolete within the Metropolitan areas of Sydney and Melbourne (Waller, 2013) do not attract developers wishing to redevelop, due to the rule of redevelopment based on the Residual Land Value. (RLV). The Residual Land Value of the new building when compared to the RLV of the existing structure should be greater than the cost of redevelopment. Developers have tended to prefer new developments in Sydney around the new fast train being built, while neglecting the other areas. Ways to Reduce High Prices in Sydney and Melbourne. One of the ways to reduce the high prices in Sydney would be to raise the bank rate to the ideal of 3.5%. Currently the rate is at 1.5% which is lower than the national rate and does not augur well for its economy which is booming. Reducing the rate would reduce the uptake of loans and mortgages for houses which would result in lowering the demand and ultimately the prices. This would result in houses within Sydney falling by an average of $100,000 and make them more affordable for the residents of the city (Bleby and Tan, 2015). Higher bank rates will reduce the number of potential buyers who traditionally rely on bank-loans to purchase their houses. The new purchasers on the market would be cash buyers who are less when compared to loan/mortgage buyers. This will lead to lower prices in the market. In Melbourne, the approach by the Metropolitan authorities would be to give incentives for developers to build up (vertically) and not out (horizontally).The recent rezoning by the Victorian government has resulted in the creation of 100,000 new housing lots which are mostly on the periphery of the Metropolitan area. Building new units on the expanded geography of Melbourne city will have cost implications infrastructure development, including water and sewerage. These costs will ultimately impact the price (Brown, 2015) as they will factor into the cost of construction. The ideal is for new developments which are horizontal and use the existing infrastructure in order to contain construction costs. This will result in lower prices which can be passed on to the buyer. How a young Professional can buy a House in Sydney and Melbourne For the young professional in Sydney wishing to purchase a house, the best option is to look for a house that is much further away from the CBD as well as looking at the western suburbs where prices are generally much lower (Gillespie, 2016). The demand within the CBD is high while the supply is short and there is no short-run supply to remedy this situation. Houses that are further away from the CBD tend to attract lower prices than houses that are closer to the CBD due to the increased competition from buyers from the few available units. The young professional can also incorporate their spouse when purchasing the unit if on mortgage so as to lessen the burden of repayment on one person. For the young professional in Melbourne, the best alternative is to make use of positive gearing (Koulizos, 2016) which can be used for a second purchase at a more desirable location. The positive gearing would be from the position of continuing to rent in Melbourne while making a purchase in a region like Geelong or Ballarat and renting in out. The rent from the property should be higher than the current rent paid in Melbourne. The extra savings between the rent and interest should be saved for a future purchase which should be closer to Melbourne. By the time they want to purchase a house in Melbourne, the regional house will have made some considerable capital gains. In conclusion, the application of the economic concept of demand and supply is practical from the macro and micro economic perspectives when addressing the problem of high prices for houses. The concepts of elasticity have application in the real estate sector and can guide developers and investors when considering investing in housing. The concept of short-run and how it affects the stock of housing is also important in determining how the market will respond to an increase of houses in the short-run. The options available for cities such as Sydney and Melbourne include a mix of both macro and micro considerations in order to reduce the current high prices. The options available for a young professional are also varied and will give options that will help them purchase a house within the two cities. References Bates, L.J., Giaccotto, C. Santerre, R.E. 2015, "Is the Real Estate Sector More Responsive to Economy-Wide or Housing Market Conditions? An Exploratory Analysis", Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 541-554. Bleby, M., Tan, S. 2016. Why housing in Sydney is so strong. [online] Available at: https://www.afr.com/real-estate/residential/nsw/why-housing-demand-in-sydney-is-so-strong-20160825-gr0sks Accessed 8 May 2017 Brown, P. 2015. The Real Estate Development Process. 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